The Final Steps Into The Ordinary Essay Example For Students

The Final Steps Into The Ordinary Essay marcus SnellEnglish 101 1:00-1:5011/6/00The Final Steps Into The Ordinary?Its hard sometimes to put your finger on the tipping point of tolerance. Its not usually the Thurgood Marshalls and the Sally Rides, the big headlines and the major stories. Its in the small incremental ways the world stops seeing differences as threatening?And its finally happening for gay men and lesbians. Theyre becoming ordinary.? In the September issue of Newsweek magazine Ann Quindlen wrote an article entitled The Right To Be Ordinary. In this article Quindlen addresses the issue of gays and lesbians becoming a part of every day life. The article states that even though there is still a lot of discrimination in our country; being gay or lesbian over the years has become more widely accepted. The author effectively argues this point by her use of anecdotes, her tone, and by ?. We will write a custom essay on The Final Steps Into The Ordinary specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Quindlen successfully uses anecdotes to show readers how gay men and lesbians are becoming more commonplace. She builds her credibility by use actual anecdotes that have really occurred and have been reported in many newspapers. On incident that she reported was the Supreme Courts decision that the Boy Scouts had a right to keep out gay scoutmasters. This seems like a setback but it was actually a blessing in disguise. Even though the gay scoutmaster lost his trial, it was the Scouting officials that really took the beating. Men who had been Eagle Scouts for years began to send back their badges. The United Way would no longer support them and took away their funding. Cities and states soon prohibited the Boy Scouts from using public facilities. All this the Boy Scouts lost because of one little act of intolerance for a fellow human being. An additional example would be that during the summer in Vermont, nearly 500 gay and lesbian couples were united in civil unions. Even if these unions were only a ?second-class? type of marriage, it still meant something to the individuals. Unlike how many religious leaders have felt, nothing awful occurred because of these marriages ?The sky did not fall. The earth did not split in two. Happy families and happy friends watched happy people pledge their love.? Anna Quindlens tone made the editorial both successful and unsuccessful in relaying the point of her thesis. In writing her editorial, Quindlen used a somewhat humorous and aggravated tone. Her humorous tone was shown strongest when she was talking about Dr. Laura Schlessinger and about the Biblical text. To quote Quindlen about a letter written to Schlessinger, ? It thanks the conservative radio talk-show host, who has a loyal following of people who apparently were not yelled at enough as children and are trying to find someo ne to make up for it, for educating people regarding Gods law on homosexuality.? Quindlen also addressed a few questions that the Bible had raised in her mind. The Bible states that slaves may be bought from neighboring nations. She was confused because a friend had told her that this stood for Mexicans but not Canadians. Another passage tells her that she is morally obligated to put her neighbor to death because he works on the Sabbath day. Last of all, she talks of how her friend told her that eating shellfish is an abomination (again according to the Bible) but a lesser abomination that homosexuality. Quindlen disagrees with this statement, along with the ones before it, and would like some clarification. This humorous tone kept the editorial entertaining and gave a different perspective on how to view what the Bible has to say exactly. .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .postImageUrl , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:hover , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:visited , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:active { border:0!important; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:active , .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485 .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u834bb10e108b5efc5ed0255b2b78b485:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Recycling EssayA hint of aggravation could also be heard coming through to the reader. Sign of aggravation were ineffective in conveying her thesis. Anna Quindlens aggravation illustrated that even with all the progress the human race has made, with accepting differences; we still have a long way to go. Some of the strongest feelings of irritation are present near the end of the editorial. ?There are still too many gay bias murders, too, and too many committed by young men who feel threatened by the very notion of homosexuality. Thats one of the saddest things about the decision by the Boy Scouts, that they send a clear message to those who most need to learn tolerance tha t homophobia is acceptable, natural, even praiseworthy.? Little amounts of aggravation is expected when dealing with a subject as important as this. The statement Quindlen made had to be made so she could show that even though we have progressed; we still need to deal with others and ourselves individually. A THIRD POINT GOES HERE!!!!!!?It is almost tangible, the ways in which ordinary people who happen to be gay have become unremarkable.? Quindlen said this at the end of her editorial speaking of the guy who won ?Survivor? and how he was a gay man. He was only an ordinary man who made his way to the top by succeeding. It just so happened that he was gay, big deal. He was just another person wining a million dollars because of his mental and (in his case) physical strength.

Formation of the Delian League in Ancient History

Formation of the Delian League in Ancient History Several Ionian cities joined together in the Delian League  for mutual protection against the Persians. They placed Athens at the head (as hegemon) because of her naval supremacy. This free confederation (symmachia) of autonomous cities, founded in 478 B.C., consisted of representatives, an admiral, and treasurers appointed by Athens. It was called the Delian League because its treasury was located at  Delos. History Formed in 478 B.C., the Delian League was an alliance of mainly coastal and Aegean city-states against Persia at a time when Greece feared Persia might attack again. Its goal was to make Persia pay and to free the Greeks under Persian dominion. The league morphed into the Athenian Empire that opposed the Spartan allies in the Peloponnesian War. After the Persian Wars, which included Xerxes invasion by land at the Battle of Thermopylae (the setting for the graphic novel-based movie ), the various Hellenic poleis (city-states) divided into opposing sides ranged around Athens and Sparta, and fought the Peloponnesian War. This enervating war was a major turning point in Greek history since in the following century, the city-states were no longer strong enough to stand up to the Macedonians under Philip and his son Alexander the Great. These Macedonians adopted one of the aims of the Delian League: to make Persia pay. Strength is what the poleis had been seeking when they turned to Athens to form the Delian League. Mutual Protection Following Hellenic victory at the Battle of Salamis, during the Persian Wars, Ionian cities joined together in the Delian League for mutual protection. The league was meant to be offensive as well as defensive: to have the same friends and enemies (typical terms for an alliance formed for this dual purpose [Larsen]), with secession forbidden. The member poleis placed Athens at the head (hegemon) because of her naval supremacy. Many of the Greek cities were annoyed with the tyrannical behavior of the Spartan commander Pausanias, who had been leader of the Greeks during the Persian War. Thucydides Book 1.96 on the formation of the Delian League 96. When the Athenians had thus gotten the command by the confederates own accord for the hatred they bare to Pausanias, they then set down an order which cities should contribute money for this war against the barbarians, and which galleys. For they pretended to repair the injuries they had suffered by laying waste the territories of the king. [2] And then first came up amongst the Athenians the office of treasurers of Greece, who were receivers of the tribute, for so they called this money contributed. And the first tribute that was taxed came to four hundred and sixty talents. The treasury was at Delos, and their meetings were kept there in the temple. Members of the Delian League In The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (1989), author-historian Donald Kagan says the members included about 20 members from the Greek islands, 36 Ionian city-states, 35 from the Hellespont, 24 from around Caria, and 33 from around Thrace, making it primarily an organization of the Aegean islands and coast. This free confederation (symmachia) of autonomous cities, consisted of representatives, an admiral, and financial officers/treasurers (hellenotamiai) appointed by Athens. It was called the Delian League because its treasury was located at Delos. An Athenian leader, Aristides, initially assessed the allies in the Delian League 460 talents, probably annually [Rhodes] (there is some question about the amount and people assessed [Larsen]), to be paid to the treasury, either in cash or warships (triremes). This assessment is referred to as phoros that which is brought or tribute. 23.5 Hence it was Aristeides who assessed the tributes of the allied states on the first occasion, two years after the naval battle of Salamis, in the archonship of Timosthenes, and who administered the oaths to the Ionians when they swore to have the same enemies and friends, ratifying their oaths by letting the lumps of iron sink to the bottom out at sea. - Aristotle Ath. Pol. 23.5 Athenian Supremacy For 10 years, the Delian League fought to rid Thrace and the Aegean of Persian strongholds and piracy. Athens, which continued to demand financial contributions or ships from its allies, even when fighting was no longer necessary, became more and more powerful as her allies became poorer and weaker. In 454, the treasury was moved to Athens. Animosity developed, but Athens would not permit the formerly free cities to secede. The enemies of Pericles were crying out how that the commonwealth of Athens had lost its reputation and was ill-spoken of abroad for removing the common treasure of the Greeks from the isle of Delos into their own custody; and how that their fairest excuse for so doing, namely, that they took it away for fear the barbarians should seize it, and on purpose to secure it in a safe place, this Pericles had made unavailable, and how that Greece cannot but resent it as an insufferable affront, and consider herself to be tyrannized over openly, when she sees the treasure, which was contributed by her upon a necessity for the war, wantonly lavished out by us upon our city, to gild her all over, and to adorn and set her forth, as it were some vain woman, hung round with precious stones and figures and temples, which cost a world of money. Pericles, on the other hand, informed the people, that they were in no way obliged to give any account of those moneys to their allies, so long as they maintained their defense, and kept off the barbarians from attacking them. - Plutarchs Life of Pericles The Peace of Callias, in 449, between Athens and Persia, put an end to the rationale for the Delian League, since there should have been peace, but Athens by then had a taste for power and the Persians started supporting the Spartans to Athens detriment [Flower]. End of the Delian League The Delian League was broken up when Sparta captured Athens in 404. This was a terrible time for many in Athens. The victors razed the great walls linking the city to her harbor city of Piraeus; Athens lose her colonies, and most of her navy, and then submitted to the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. An Athenian league was later revived in 378-7 to protect against Spartan aggression and survived until Philip II of Macedons victory at Chaeronea (in Boeotia, where Plutarch would later be born). Terms to Know hegemonia leadership.Hellenic Greek.Hellenotamiai treasurers, Athenian financial officers.Peloponnesian League modern term for the military alliance of the Lacedaemonians and their allies.symmachia a treaty where the signers agree to fight for one another. Sources Starr, Chester G. A History of the Ancient World. Oxford University Press, 1991.Kagan, Donald. The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Cornell University Press, 2013.Holden, Hubert Ashton, Plutarchs Life of Perciles, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1895.Lewis, David Malcolm. The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 5: The Fifth Century BC., Boardman, John, Davies, J.K., Ostwald, M., Cambridge University Press, 1992.Larsen, J. A. O. â€Å"The Constitution and Original Purpose of the Delian League.† Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. 51, 1940, p. 175.Sabin, Philip, International Relations in Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome, Hall, Jonathan M., Van Wees, Hans, Whitby, Michael, Cambridge University Press, 2007.Flower, Michael A. From Simonides to Isocrates: The Fifth-Century Origins of Fourth-Century Panhellenism, Classical Antiquity, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Apr. 2000), pp. 65-101.

Challenges of Harmonization of Accounting System

Accounting Standards in other words can be stated as rules which govern the preparation of financial statements. They are the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Where by accounting practices are the actual used practices by accountants. They are influenced by Accounting Standards, which govern the preparation of financial reports. Harmonization of accounting standards† can be defined as the continuous process of ensuring that the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) are formulated, aligned and updated to international best practices (GAAPs in other countries) with suitable modifications and fine tuning considering the domestic conditions. Harmonization is the process of increasing compatibility of accounting practices by setting bounds on their degree of variation. Harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries are prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). According to Wolk et al. described harmonization of Accounting Standards as â€Å"the co-ordination or similarity among the various sets of national Accounting Standards and methods and formats of financial reporting†. (Kleekamper et al. , 2002) Kleekamperet al. xplain, that the aim of the international harmonization process of Accounting Standards is to reduce or overcome differences world-wide, in order to reach a better international Comparability of financial statements. International accounting harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries ar e prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). This harmonization is needed due to the globalization of businesses and services and increase in cross-border investments and borrowings and academicians, regulators and governments have been constantly striving to harmonize the local/domestic Accounting Standards(AS), also referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with the International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by the UK based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (formerly the International Accounting Standards Committee-IASC). The IASB has been trying to harmonize international accounting principles since 1973. Further, the IASB and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) have been jointly working on harmonization since July 1995, and in May 2000 the IOSCO finished its review of the IAS and recommended usage of certain IAS, supplemented with reconciliation, disclosure and interpretations. Some benefits of harmonization of accounting practices is as follows * It ensures reliable and high quality financial reporting and disclosures. In certain cases, it can prove to be crucial to the economic and financial development of a country * It enables a systematic review and evaluation of the performance of a multinational company having subsidiaries and associates in various countries wherein each country has its own set of GAAP * It makes the comparison of the performance of a company against its domestic and international peers easier and more meaningful * It is a precursor for accessing international capital markets which can, in turn, reduce the capital cost and consequently, improve the performance of a company * Multinational companies, the multinational companies benefit from closer harmonization for the following reasons a) Access to international finance is easier, the international financial markets understand the financial information presented to them more easily. If the information is provided on a consistent basis between companies irrespective of their country of origin. b) Improved management control, in a business operating in several countries management control is improved. Internal financial information is more easily prepared on consistent basis if externally required financial information is required on a uniform basis. c) Consolidation of financial statement is easier ) A reduction of auditing cost due to harmonized accounting practices and standards. e) A transfer of accounting staff across national borders would be easier f) It would be easier to comply with reporting requirements of overseas stock exchanges. g) Appraisals of foreign entities for take over and mergers would be more straightforward. * International economic groupings, international groupings like EU (European Union) could work more effectively if there were international harmonization of accounting policies. Part of the function of international groupings is go make cross-border trade easier. Similar to accounting regulation would help this process. Government of developing countries would save time and money if they would adopt international standards and, if these were used internally, governments of developing countries could attempt to control the activities of foreign multinational companies in their own country. These companies could not hide behind foreign accounting practices which are difficult to understand. * Tax authorities, it will be easier to calculate the tax liability of investors, including multinationals who receive income from overseas sources. * Large accounting and auditing firms would benefit as accounting and auditing would be much easier if similar accounting practices existed throughout the world. Despite the importance of harmonizing accounting standards, there still challenges facing harmonization of accounting standards between the member countries using IFRS (international financial reporting standard) and also between United States using US GAAP. These challenges are brought about different tax laws, different culture, different legal requirement, nationalism and different needs of financial statements. Speaking of harmonization we should put in consideration of International accounting standard board (IASB) based in UK and Financial accounting standard board (FASB) based in US. The  International Accounting Standards Board  (IASB) is the independent,  accounting standard-setting body of the  IFRS Foundation. The IASB was founded on April 1, 2001 as the successor to the  International Accounting Standards Committee  (IASC). It is responsible for developing  International Financial Reporting Standards  (the new name for  International Accounting Standards  issued after 2001), and promoting the use and application of these standards. The  Financial Accounting Standards Board  (FASB) is a private,  not-for-profit organization  whose primary purpose is to develop generally accepted accounting principles  (GAAP) within the  United States  in the public’s interest. The  Securities and Exchange Commission  (SEC) designated the FASB as the organization responsible for setting accounting standards for public companies in the U. S. It was created in 1973, replacing the  Committee on Accounting Procedure  (CAP) and the  Accounting Principles Board  (APB) of the  American Institute of Certified Public Accountants  (AICPA). The FASB’s mission is â€Å"to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information. † To achieve this, FASB has five goals. * Improve the usefulness of financial reporting by focusing on the primary characteristics of relevance and reliability, and on the qualities of comparability and consistency. * Keep standards current to reflect changes in methods of doing business and in the economy. Consider promptly any significant areas of deficiency in financial reporting that might be improved through standard setting. * Promote  international convergence of accounting standards  concurrent with improving the quality of financial reporting. * Im prove common understanding of the nature and purposes of information in financial reports. The two boards have been making efforts to harmonize the accounting principles, as of September 2011, there was a push to harmonize, or integrate, the accounting standards of the United States, which operates under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with International Accounting Standards (IAS). The rationale is that it would level the playing field for global businesses by providing regulators, auditors and decision-makers (investors) uniform information based on the same accounting methodologies. Supporters believe that this would improve accountability, reduce international transactional and exchange rate risks and improve information transfer to enhance economic policy decision-making. The difference between IAS and US GAAP is that the former is more principle based and the later is rule based. The following are Challenges to harmonization of accounting systems. Licensing and Enforcement, Individual accountants, CPAs and tax lawyers worldwide would need to comply with and obtain licensing through an internationally accepted rules-making body. If he international body lacks enforcement authority, there is no prosecutorial authority for breaking international laws. However, if the international body does have prosecutorial authority over a U. S. citizen, there would arise jurisdictional and constitutional issues regarding the rights of an international body’s rights to prosecute an American under international law. Finally, issues arise from the perspective of U. S. -only based businesses regarding forced compliance IASB standards are principles-based. Thus the countries that have rules-based standards are expected to experience considerable difficulty in harmonization of their standards with IFRS. There are challenges that IASB and nations adopting IFRS need to address in the coming days. One big challenge for countries adopting IFRS is the shortage of manpower and more particularly, IFRS-trained manpower. For case in point, with just six months to go before China’s listed companies adopt IFRS, demand for accountants is rising and could run into millions in the coming years, if the new standards are rolled out for all of the country’s companies and not just the listed ones. Accountants say that the challenge for China, as it scrambles to meet the accounting shift deadline, will lie in getting its over-1,100 listed companies to establish the appropriate financial reporting systems and in training enough qualified accountants by January. The risk is that some of these companies may fail to make the transition on time. Estimates reveal that China has a shortfall of 300,000 qualified accountants and is likely to require a further three million over the coming years to keep pace with its current rate of economic growth Difference purpose of financial reporting, in some countries the purpose is solely for tax assessment, while others it is for investor decision making, Different legal systems, these prevent the development of certain accounting practices and restrict options available. The Accounting world can be divided into â€Å"those countries which have a ‘legalistic’ orientation toward accounting and those with a ‘non legalistic’ orientation† (Nobes et al. , 1997:8). The non-legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use common law. In Common law countries, Accounting does not depend upon law. Accountants (professional organizations) arrange accounting rules. Hence, it is the private sector, which determines Accounting and not the law (Choi et al. , 200 2). The task of the legal system is to give an answer to a specific case rather than to formulate general rules for the future (Choi et al. 2002). The legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use the so called code (or codified) law. In contrary to the common law, the codified law system needs to develop rules in detail for the Accounting and financial reporting (Nobes, 1994). This means that â€Å"Accounting rules are incorporated into national law and tend to be highly prescriptive and procedural† (Choi et al. , 2002:43). In these countries the role of law is to describe behavior, which isconsidered to be acceptable in the society (Choi et al. , 2002). Different user groups, countries have different ideas about who the relevant user groups and their respective importance. In USA investor and credit groups are given prominence, while in Europe employees enjoy a higher profile. Provider of finance, there three main sources for external capital are shareholders, banks and government (Hill, 1999). It varies from country to country, which of these three provides most of the financial capital to companies. In countries like Germany and Italy banks provide companies with capital. In countries like England and the United States shareholders provide companies with capital. The government is the provider of capital in countries like France and Sweden. (Hill,1999) This diversity of capital providers means that Accounting Practices differ in order to satisfy needs of capital providers. In the case of shareholder ownership, (e. g. in the U. K. and the U. S. ), information disclosure will be more important than in countries, where capital is raised from banks or governments. This is explained by the fact that in the latter countries information will be transmitted more directly. (Radebaugh and Gray, 1997) It is impossible for a company to inform each shareholder with its specific information needs, because they are a big and unorganized group. Therefore financial statements in the US and UK are â€Å"oriented toward providing individual investors with the information they need to make decisions about purchasing or selling corporate stocks and bonds† (Hill, 1999:593). Tax laws, the key question here is to ask, how much taxation regulations determine Accounting measurements. In countries like the U. S. , U. K. and Netherlands there is no interplay between tax and Accounting law. When Accounting Standards are developed, the only focus is how to conduce the information function. Questions about taxation are not considered in those countries (Achleitner, 2000). In contrary, in nations as France and Germany, tax and Accounting Systems are ruled equal (Nobes and Parker, 2000). There is the principle of decisiveness in continental European countries. This means that the profit of the balance sheet is at the same time the foundation to snap income taxes (Achleitner, 2000). In Tanzania income tax act is in dis agreement with some accounting procedures like computation of depreciation, Bad debts and therefore disagree on how accountant compute organization profit and therefore in Tanzania should prepare to set of financial statement one for tax purposes and the other for other users of accounting information. Cultural differences result in objectives for accounting systems differing from country to country for example Islamic laws does not recognize the use of interest rate. The lack of strong accountancy bodies, many countries do not have strong independent accountancy or business bodies which would press for better standards and greater harmonization. Unique circumstances, some countries may be experiencing unusual circumstances which affect all aspects of everyday life an d impinge on the ability of companies to produce proper reports, for example hyperinflation, civil war, currency restriction. Nationalism is demonstrated in an unwillingness to accept another country’s standard. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the U. S. is responsible for setting accounting standards based primarily on â€Å"Federal securities laws and state CPA licensing laws. † All countries have specific securities laws, tax laws and banking and financial regulations that dictate accounting principles. Furthermore, in the United States, there are individual state laws that govern business, banking and insurance activities. Adopting international accounting standards would not only conflict with U. S. tatute law, but also constitutional law associated with â€Å"states’ rights. † Stable Platform, Beginning in 2005 , all 7,000 EU publicly traded companies are required to apply IFRS in the preparation of their consolidated financial statements. This represents yet another challenge as preparers of financial statements from Latvia to Portugal and from Poland to Sweden grapple with unfamiliar requirements. In preparation for this sweeping change, the IASB completed its â€Å"stable platform† of standards in March 2004. New and revised standards included five new IFRSs and 17 amended IASs, resulting from the IASB’s Improvements Project and Phase I of its Business Combinations Project. Some of the more significant revisions to IFRS that resulted from these projects include: * The LIFO method for costing inventories is no longer allowed; *   The concepts of â€Å"fundamental error† and â€Å"extraordinary items† are eliminated; *   Trading securities are now included in a larger defined category of financial instruments â€Å"at fair value through profit or loss† and entities may designate any financial asset or liability into this category (commonly referred to as â€Å"the fair value option†); *   Fair value hedge accounting may now be used more readily for a portfolio hedge of interest rate risk; *   Guidelines for share-based payments have been added;   The pooling-of-interests method for business combinations is no longer allowed; *   Goodwill is no longer amortized, and negative goodwill is not recorded in a business combination World wide acceptance, National accounting standards are highly politicized and there is ofte n a natural tendency to place the interests of the national economy ahead of those of the global economy. Private sector businesses and professional accounting bodies also have a vested interest in accounting practices and financial reporting. Pressure from these groups to change or reject certain standards can carry a lot of weight with political decision makers. Adopting international financial standards is met with additional challenges in developing countries. They often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt national legal and legislative frameworks in which to house the standards, making proper implementation difficult. Training and Retraining, When a country decides to harmonize with the international standards, its companies, accountants and auditors need to be retrained in the new standards and reporting procedures for financial statements. College and university programs in this field also have to undergo significant changes in order to educate new people entering the profession. Before any of this can happen, trainers and professors will require training so they can instruct professionals and students. This will require the development of new learning materials and curricula, new examinations for professional licensing and new accounting software and reporting systems. To further complicate matters, the adoption of harmonized standards has to be phased in, so for a number of years, two different systems are in operation. Such a omplex transition requires a lot of safety mechanisms to ensure it achieves uniform results. To sum up with, Harmonization of financial statement is very crucial for acc ounting profession and also for the global business growth especially for multinational companies which will now find easily in preparation of parent and subsidiary financial statement since have to be prepared according to IFRS. IFRS IS very important to developing countries like Tanzania such as increasing confidence of investors, reduce cost of doing business, facilitate smooth operation of international groupings like EAC and the countries accountant become competitive worldwide. REFERENCES WORD LENGTH: 3517 words Arbnor, I. Bjerke, B. (1997): Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Ghauri, P. ; Gronhaug, K. (2002): Research Methods in Business Studies, Prentice Hall, London. Choi, F. ; Frost C. ; Gary, K. (2002): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 4th edition. Choi, F. ; Mueller, G. (1992): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2nd edition. Epstein, B. ; Mirza, A. (2001): IAS, Interpretation a nd Application, John Wiley ; Sons, New York. Ghauri P. ; Gronhaug, K. ; Kristianslund, I. (1995): Research Methods in Business Studies: A practical guide, Prentice Hall, Bodmin. Gummesson, E. 2000): Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, 2nd edition. Helgesson, T. (1996): Culture in International Business: an Introduction, Academia Adacta, Lund. Hill, C. (1999): Competing in the Global Marketplace; Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston, 3rd edition. Hofstede, G. (1991): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Howard, K. ; Sharp, J. (1983): The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Ltd. , Aldershot. Johansson, L. (2000): Introduktion till Vetenskapsteorin, AIT Falun AB, Stockholm. Kam, V. (1990): Accounting Theory, John Willey and Sons, New York, 2nd edition. 70 Kleekamper, H. ; Kuhlewind, M. ; Alvarez, M. 2002): Grundlagen, Ziele, Organisation, Entwicklung und Bedeutung des IAS B, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), editedy by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch H. (2002), Schafer-Poeschel, Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Naciri, A. ; Hoarau C. (2001): A comparative analysis of american and french financial Reporting philosophies: the case for international Accounting Standards, in: Advances in International Accounting, edited by Sale, J; Salter, S; Sharp, D. (2001), Elsevier Sience Ltd, Oxford. Nobes, C. ; Parker, R. (2000): Comparative International Accounting, Financial Times – Prentice Hall, Hartlow. Nobes, C. 1999): Towards a General Model of the Reasons for International Differences in Financial Reporting, in: International Accounting and Comparative Financial Reporting, edited by Nobes, C. (1998), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham. Nobes, C; Mueller, G; Gernon, H; Meek, G. (1997): Accounting an International Perspective, Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Chicago, 4th edition. Nobes, C. (1994): Accounting Harmonisation in Europe: Process, progress and prospects, FT Business Information Ltd, London. North, D. (1990): Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Miles, M. ; Huberman, A. (1994): Qualitative Data Analysis – An expanded source book, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Mueller, G. 1997): Harmonization Efforts in the European Union, in: International Accounting and Finance Handbook, edited by Choi, F. (1997), Wiley and Sons, New York, 7th edition. Mueller, G. ; Gernon, H. ; Meek, G. (1991): Accounting – an International Perspective; Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Homewood, 2nd edition. Radebaugh, L. ; Daniels, J. (2001): International Business, Environment and Operations, Prentice Hall, London, 9th edition. Radebaugh L. ; Gray S. (1997): International Accounting and multinational enterprises, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th edition. Remenyi, D. ; Williams, B. ;Money A. ; Swartz E. (1998): Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, SAGE Publications, London. 71 Riahi-Belkaoui, A. 2000): Accounting Theory, Thomson Learning – Business Press, Padstow, Cornwall, 4th edition. Roberts, C. ; Weetman, P. ; Gordon P. (1998): International Financial Accounting – a comparative approach, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, London. Samuels, J. ; Piper, A. (1985): International Accounting: A survery, Croom Helm, London. Wolk, H. ; Tearney, M. ; Dodd, J. (2001): A Conceptual and intestinal Approach: Accounting Theory, South-Western College Publishing, 5th edition. Wollmert, P. ; Achleitner A. (2002): Konzeption der IAS: Rechnungslegung, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), edited by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch, H. (2002):, Schafer-Poeschel, , Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Challenges of Harmonization of Accounting System Accounting Standards in other words can be stated as rules which govern the preparation of financial statements. They are the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Where by accounting practices are the actual used practices by accountants. They are influenced by Accounting Standards, which govern the preparation of financial reports. Harmonization of accounting standards† can be defined as the continuous process of ensuring that the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) are formulated, aligned and updated to international best practices (GAAPs in other countries) with suitable modifications and fine tuning considering the domestic conditions. Harmonization is the process of increasing compatibility of accounting practices by setting bounds on their degree of variation. Harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries are prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). According to Wolk et al. described harmonization of Accounting Standards as â€Å"the co-ordination or similarity among the various sets of national Accounting Standards and methods and formats of financial reporting†. (Kleekamper et al. , 2002) Kleekamperet al. xplain, that the aim of the international harmonization process of Accounting Standards is to reduce or overcome differences world-wide, in order to reach a better international Comparability of financial statements. International accounting harmonization can be defined as â€Å"the process of bringing international Accounting Standards into some sort of agreement so that the financial statements from different countries ar e prepared according to a common set of principles of measurement and disclosure† (Haskins et al. 1996:29). This harmonization is needed due to the globalization of businesses and services and increase in cross-border investments and borrowings and academicians, regulators and governments have been constantly striving to harmonize the local/domestic Accounting Standards(AS), also referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with the International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued by the UK based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (formerly the International Accounting Standards Committee-IASC). The IASB has been trying to harmonize international accounting principles since 1973. Further, the IASB and the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) have been jointly working on harmonization since July 1995, and in May 2000 the IOSCO finished its review of the IAS and recommended usage of certain IAS, supplemented with reconciliation, disclosure and interpretations. Some benefits of harmonization of accounting practices is as follows * It ensures reliable and high quality financial reporting and disclosures. In certain cases, it can prove to be crucial to the economic and financial development of a country * It enables a systematic review and evaluation of the performance of a multinational company having subsidiaries and associates in various countries wherein each country has its own set of GAAP * It makes the comparison of the performance of a company against its domestic and international peers easier and more meaningful * It is a precursor for accessing international capital markets which can, in turn, reduce the capital cost and consequently, improve the performance of a company * Multinational companies, the multinational companies benefit from closer harmonization for the following reasons a) Access to international finance is easier, the international financial markets understand the financial information presented to them more easily. If the information is provided on a consistent basis between companies irrespective of their country of origin. b) Improved management control, in a business operating in several countries management control is improved. Internal financial information is more easily prepared on consistent basis if externally required financial information is required on a uniform basis. c) Consolidation of financial statement is easier ) A reduction of auditing cost due to harmonized accounting practices and standards. e) A transfer of accounting staff across national borders would be easier f) It would be easier to comply with reporting requirements of overseas stock exchanges. g) Appraisals of foreign entities for take over and mergers would be more straightforward. * International economic groupings, international groupings like EU (European Union) could work more effectively if there were international harmonization of accounting policies. Part of the function of international groupings is go make cross-border trade easier. Similar to accounting regulation would help this process. Government of developing countries would save time and money if they would adopt international standards and, if these were used internally, governments of developing countries could attempt to control the activities of foreign multinational companies in their own country. These companies could not hide behind foreign accounting practices which are difficult to understand. * Tax authorities, it will be easier to calculate the tax liability of investors, including multinationals who receive income from overseas sources. * Large accounting and auditing firms would benefit as accounting and auditing would be much easier if similar accounting practices existed throughout the world. Despite the importance of harmonizing accounting standards, there still challenges facing harmonization of accounting standards between the member countries using IFRS (international financial reporting standard) and also between United States using US GAAP. These challenges are brought about different tax laws, different culture, different legal requirement, nationalism and different needs of financial statements. Speaking of harmonization we should put in consideration of International accounting standard board (IASB) based in UK and Financial accounting standard board (FASB) based in US. The  International Accounting Standards Board  (IASB) is the independent,  accounting standard-setting body of the  IFRS Foundation. The IASB was founded on April 1, 2001 as the successor to the  International Accounting Standards Committee  (IASC). It is responsible for developing  International Financial Reporting Standards  (the new name for  International Accounting Standards  issued after 2001), and promoting the use and application of these standards. The  Financial Accounting Standards Board  (FASB) is a private,  not-for-profit organization  whose primary purpose is to develop generally accepted accounting principles  (GAAP) within the  United States  in the public’s interest. The  Securities and Exchange Commission  (SEC) designated the FASB as the organization responsible for setting accounting standards for public companies in the U. S. It was created in 1973, replacing the  Committee on Accounting Procedure  (CAP) and the  Accounting Principles Board  (APB) of the  American Institute of Certified Public Accountants  (AICPA). The FASB’s mission is â€Å"to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information. † To achieve this, FASB has five goals. * Improve the usefulness of financial reporting by focusing on the primary characteristics of relevance and reliability, and on the qualities of comparability and consistency. * Keep standards current to reflect changes in methods of doing business and in the economy. Consider promptly any significant areas of deficiency in financial reporting that might be improved through standard setting. * Promote  international convergence of accounting standards  concurrent with improving the quality of financial reporting. * Im prove common understanding of the nature and purposes of information in financial reports. The two boards have been making efforts to harmonize the accounting principles, as of September 2011, there was a push to harmonize, or integrate, the accounting standards of the United States, which operates under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), with International Accounting Standards (IAS). The rationale is that it would level the playing field for global businesses by providing regulators, auditors and decision-makers (investors) uniform information based on the same accounting methodologies. Supporters believe that this would improve accountability, reduce international transactional and exchange rate risks and improve information transfer to enhance economic policy decision-making. The difference between IAS and US GAAP is that the former is more principle based and the later is rule based. The following are Challenges to harmonization of accounting systems. Licensing and Enforcement, Individual accountants, CPAs and tax lawyers worldwide would need to comply with and obtain licensing through an internationally accepted rules-making body. If he international body lacks enforcement authority, there is no prosecutorial authority for breaking international laws. However, if the international body does have prosecutorial authority over a U. S. citizen, there would arise jurisdictional and constitutional issues regarding the rights of an international body’s rights to prosecute an American under international law. Finally, issues arise from the perspective of U. S. -only based businesses regarding forced compliance IASB standards are principles-based. Thus the countries that have rules-based standards are expected to experience considerable difficulty in harmonization of their standards with IFRS. There are challenges that IASB and nations adopting IFRS need to address in the coming days. One big challenge for countries adopting IFRS is the shortage of manpower and more particularly, IFRS-trained manpower. For case in point, with just six months to go before China’s listed companies adopt IFRS, demand for accountants is rising and could run into millions in the coming years, if the new standards are rolled out for all of the country’s companies and not just the listed ones. Accountants say that the challenge for China, as it scrambles to meet the accounting shift deadline, will lie in getting its over-1,100 listed companies to establish the appropriate financial reporting systems and in training enough qualified accountants by January. The risk is that some of these companies may fail to make the transition on time. Estimates reveal that China has a shortfall of 300,000 qualified accountants and is likely to require a further three million over the coming years to keep pace with its current rate of economic growth Difference purpose of financial reporting, in some countries the purpose is solely for tax assessment, while others it is for investor decision making, Different legal systems, these prevent the development of certain accounting practices and restrict options available. The Accounting world can be divided into â€Å"those countries which have a ‘legalistic’ orientation toward accounting and those with a ‘non legalistic’ orientation† (Nobes et al. , 1997:8). The non-legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use common law. In Common law countries, Accounting does not depend upon law. Accountants (professional organizations) arrange accounting rules. Hence, it is the private sector, which determines Accounting and not the law (Choi et al. , 200 2). The task of the legal system is to give an answer to a specific case rather than to formulate general rules for the future (Choi et al. 2002). The legalistic approach can be found in countries, which use the so called code (or codified) law. In contrary to the common law, the codified law system needs to develop rules in detail for the Accounting and financial reporting (Nobes, 1994). This means that â€Å"Accounting rules are incorporated into national law and tend to be highly prescriptive and procedural† (Choi et al. , 2002:43). In these countries the role of law is to describe behavior, which isconsidered to be acceptable in the society (Choi et al. , 2002). Different user groups, countries have different ideas about who the relevant user groups and their respective importance. In USA investor and credit groups are given prominence, while in Europe employees enjoy a higher profile. Provider of finance, there three main sources for external capital are shareholders, banks and government (Hill, 1999). It varies from country to country, which of these three provides most of the financial capital to companies. In countries like Germany and Italy banks provide companies with capital. In countries like England and the United States shareholders provide companies with capital. The government is the provider of capital in countries like France and Sweden. (Hill,1999) This diversity of capital providers means that Accounting Practices differ in order to satisfy needs of capital providers. In the case of shareholder ownership, (e. g. in the U. K. and the U. S. ), information disclosure will be more important than in countries, where capital is raised from banks or governments. This is explained by the fact that in the latter countries information will be transmitted more directly. (Radebaugh and Gray, 1997) It is impossible for a company to inform each shareholder with its specific information needs, because they are a big and unorganized group. Therefore financial statements in the US and UK are â€Å"oriented toward providing individual investors with the information they need to make decisions about purchasing or selling corporate stocks and bonds† (Hill, 1999:593). Tax laws, the key question here is to ask, how much taxation regulations determine Accounting measurements. In countries like the U. S. , U. K. and Netherlands there is no interplay between tax and Accounting law. When Accounting Standards are developed, the only focus is how to conduce the information function. Questions about taxation are not considered in those countries (Achleitner, 2000). In contrary, in nations as France and Germany, tax and Accounting Systems are ruled equal (Nobes and Parker, 2000). There is the principle of decisiveness in continental European countries. This means that the profit of the balance sheet is at the same time the foundation to snap income taxes (Achleitner, 2000). In Tanzania income tax act is in dis agreement with some accounting procedures like computation of depreciation, Bad debts and therefore disagree on how accountant compute organization profit and therefore in Tanzania should prepare to set of financial statement one for tax purposes and the other for other users of accounting information. Cultural differences result in objectives for accounting systems differing from country to country for example Islamic laws does not recognize the use of interest rate. The lack of strong accountancy bodies, many countries do not have strong independent accountancy or business bodies which would press for better standards and greater harmonization. Unique circumstances, some countries may be experiencing unusual circumstances which affect all aspects of everyday life an d impinge on the ability of companies to produce proper reports, for example hyperinflation, civil war, currency restriction. Nationalism is demonstrated in an unwillingness to accept another country’s standard. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the U. S. is responsible for setting accounting standards based primarily on â€Å"Federal securities laws and state CPA licensing laws. † All countries have specific securities laws, tax laws and banking and financial regulations that dictate accounting principles. Furthermore, in the United States, there are individual state laws that govern business, banking and insurance activities. Adopting international accounting standards would not only conflict with U. S. tatute law, but also constitutional law associated with â€Å"states’ rights. † Stable Platform, Beginning in 2005 , all 7,000 EU publicly traded companies are required to apply IFRS in the preparation of their consolidated financial statements. This represents yet another challenge as preparers of financial statements from Latvia to Portugal and from Poland to Sweden grapple with unfamiliar requirements. In preparation for this sweeping change, the IASB completed its â€Å"stable platform† of standards in March 2004. New and revised standards included five new IFRSs and 17 amended IASs, resulting from the IASB’s Improvements Project and Phase I of its Business Combinations Project. Some of the more significant revisions to IFRS that resulted from these projects include: * The LIFO method for costing inventories is no longer allowed; *   The concepts of â€Å"fundamental error† and â€Å"extraordinary items† are eliminated; *   Trading securities are now included in a larger defined category of financial instruments â€Å"at fair value through profit or loss† and entities may designate any financial asset or liability into this category (commonly referred to as â€Å"the fair value option†); *   Fair value hedge accounting may now be used more readily for a portfolio hedge of interest rate risk; *   Guidelines for share-based payments have been added;   The pooling-of-interests method for business combinations is no longer allowed; *   Goodwill is no longer amortized, and negative goodwill is not recorded in a business combination World wide acceptance, National accounting standards are highly politicized and there is ofte n a natural tendency to place the interests of the national economy ahead of those of the global economy. Private sector businesses and professional accounting bodies also have a vested interest in accounting practices and financial reporting. Pressure from these groups to change or reject certain standards can carry a lot of weight with political decision makers. Adopting international financial standards is met with additional challenges in developing countries. They often lack the resources and infrastructure to adapt national legal and legislative frameworks in which to house the standards, making proper implementation difficult. Training and Retraining, When a country decides to harmonize with the international standards, its companies, accountants and auditors need to be retrained in the new standards and reporting procedures for financial statements. College and university programs in this field also have to undergo significant changes in order to educate new people entering the profession. Before any of this can happen, trainers and professors will require training so they can instruct professionals and students. This will require the development of new learning materials and curricula, new examinations for professional licensing and new accounting software and reporting systems. To further complicate matters, the adoption of harmonized standards has to be phased in, so for a number of years, two different systems are in operation. Such a omplex transition requires a lot of safety mechanisms to ensure it achieves uniform results. To sum up with, Harmonization of financial statement is very crucial for acc ounting profession and also for the global business growth especially for multinational companies which will now find easily in preparation of parent and subsidiary financial statement since have to be prepared according to IFRS. IFRS IS very important to developing countries like Tanzania such as increasing confidence of investors, reduce cost of doing business, facilitate smooth operation of international groupings like EAC and the countries accountant become competitive worldwide. REFERENCES WORD LENGTH: 3517 words Arbnor, I. Bjerke, B. (1997): Methodology for Creating Business Knowledge, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Ghauri, P. ; Gronhaug, K. (2002): Research Methods in Business Studies, Prentice Hall, London. Choi, F. ; Frost C. ; Gary, K. (2002): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 4th edition. Choi, F. ; Mueller, G. (1992): International Accounting, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2nd edition. Epstein, B. ; Mirza, A. (2001): IAS, Interpretation a nd Application, John Wiley ; Sons, New York. Ghauri P. ; Gronhaug, K. ; Kristianslund, I. (1995): Research Methods in Business Studies: A practical guide, Prentice Hall, Bodmin. Gummesson, E. 2000): Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, 2nd edition. Helgesson, T. (1996): Culture in International Business: an Introduction, Academia Adacta, Lund. Hill, C. (1999): Competing in the Global Marketplace; Irwin McGraw Hill, Boston, 3rd edition. Hofstede, G. (1991): Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Howard, K. ; Sharp, J. (1983): The Management of a Student Research Project, Gower Publishing Company Ltd. , Aldershot. Johansson, L. (2000): Introduktion till Vetenskapsteorin, AIT Falun AB, Stockholm. Kam, V. (1990): Accounting Theory, John Willey and Sons, New York, 2nd edition. 70 Kleekamper, H. ; Kuhlewind, M. ; Alvarez, M. 2002): Grundlagen, Ziele, Organisation, Entwicklung und Bedeutung des IAS B, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), editedy by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch H. (2002), Schafer-Poeschel, Stuttgart, 2nd edition. Naciri, A. ; Hoarau C. (2001): A comparative analysis of american and french financial Reporting philosophies: the case for international Accounting Standards, in: Advances in International Accounting, edited by Sale, J; Salter, S; Sharp, D. (2001), Elsevier Sience Ltd, Oxford. Nobes, C. ; Parker, R. (2000): Comparative International Accounting, Financial Times – Prentice Hall, Hartlow. Nobes, C. 1999): Towards a General Model of the Reasons for International Differences in Financial Reporting, in: International Accounting and Comparative Financial Reporting, edited by Nobes, C. (1998), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham. Nobes, C; Mueller, G; Gernon, H; Meek, G. (1997): Accounting an International Perspective, Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Chicago, 4th edition. Nobes, C. (1994): Accounting Harmonisation in Europe: Process, progress and prospects, FT Business Information Ltd, London. North, D. (1990): Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Miles, M. ; Huberman, A. (1994): Qualitative Data Analysis – An expanded source book, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousands Oaks, 2nd edition. Mueller, G. 1997): Harmonization Efforts in the European Union, in: International Accounting and Finance Handbook, edited by Choi, F. (1997), Wiley and Sons, New York, 7th edition. Mueller, G. ; Gernon, H. ; Meek, G. (1991): Accounting – an International Perspective; Richard D. Irwin, Inc; Homewood, 2nd edition. Radebaugh, L. ; Daniels, J. (2001): International Business, Environment and Operations, Prentice Hall, London, 9th edition. Radebaugh L. ; Gray S. (1997): International Accounting and multinational enterprises, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th edition. Remenyi, D. ; Williams, B. ;Money A. ; Swartz E. (1998): Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method, SAGE Publications, London. 71 Riahi-Belkaoui, A. 2000): Accounting Theory, Thomson Learning – Business Press, Padstow, Cornwall, 4th edition. Roberts, C. ; Weetman, P. ; Gordon P. (1998): International Financial Accounting – a comparative approach, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, London. Samuels, J. ; Piper, A. (1985): International Accounting: A survery, Croom Helm, London. Wolk, H. ; Tearney, M. ; Dodd, J. (2001): A Conceptual and intestinal Approach: Accounting Theory, South-Western College Publishing, 5th edition. Wollmert, P. ; Achleitner A. (2002): Konzeption der IAS: Rechnungslegung, in: Rechnungslegung nach International Accounting Standards (IAS), edited by Baetge, D. ; Kleekamper, H. ; Wollmert, P. ; Kirsch, H. (2002):, Schafer-Poeschel, , Stuttgart, 2nd edition.

The Suffrage of women through the 1800s-1900s Research Paper

The Suffrage of women through the 1800s-1900s - Research Paper Example The delicacy of women was overemphasized and their abilities to play a significant role in the development and progress of the society were underestimated. Since they were considered to be in need of help, support and care, they were not offered a chance to work and support their family. They had been mistreated in a number of ways for a long period of time. They were suppressed to the extent that they were not allowed to cast their vote to represent their opinion in the political elections. Circumstances continued to remain like this until the 20th century when the women’s rights to cast their vote were finally recognized in different parts of the world after a series of events of struggle made by the women of that period. (www.wic.org, 1995). Not only that, the 20th century brought a large number of other opportunities for the women which they had been longing for so long over the past centuries, which included and were not limited to educational and work related opportuniti es. This paper aims at analyzing the history of efforts women have made to get their rights acknowledged world wide in the 19th and the 20th century with special reference to the American Suffrage Movement. â€Å"Women of the 19th and 20th century are pioneers in the international recognition of gender equality and women’s rights†. In ancient periods, women were considered as the fundamental cause of various evils that existed in the ancient societies. Women were largely recognized as inferior to men, both physically and emotionally. And this concept was not confined to any particular country. Instead, women were looked down at nearly all over the world. This is evident from the Greek myth, according to which a woman named Pandora opened a box that brought sadness and diseases for the men. (Gupta, 2010). In India, women were burnt alive together with the dead-body of their husbands as per the Hindu customs. If left alive, they were

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Consumer Behavior - Research Proposal Example While scholars like Rallapalli (2008) considered globalization as a blessing for the customers considering the increase in the number of options for decision making, Weinberg & Gottwald (2006) stated that the traditional buyer-seller relationship is changing because of globalization. Considering these sentiments, the primary focus of this research will be to analyze the influence of globalization on the behavior of the customer towards the multinational brands entering into the market. The aim of the research is to assess the influence of globalization on the customer behavior in respect to the multinational brands. The researcher also intends to evaluate the changes brought in the buying process of the customers as a result of globalization and identify the factors that are influencing the decision making process of the customers in the contemporary market scenario. The extent of globalization as a theoretical concept and reality is dominating the international business place. The concept of developing a unified market place for sustainable growth of the business houses and their customer base has taken a new shape, as the strategic aims of the business houses have altered from profit earning to accumulating customer base. On the other hand, the reaction of the customers towards the changes in the market place is mixed in nature. While some groups of customers are considering globalization to be one of the most advantageous alternations in market structure, others are finding it difficult to comprehend the developments in the market. In the words of Fornell (2007), globalization is not only for the business houses, it has given immense power to the customers by increasing the transparency in the market place. However, it is quite evident that despite having a larger market scope, many of the multinational firms are facing it difficult to perfor m in the new market places. This shows the contradictions in the nature of the business process and the

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The JACHO 2006 Standard and its Implementation in the ER Essay The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare organizations (JACHO) is known for its effort in accrediting hospitals and other medical facilities and is an independent, nonprofit organization. It is the oldest standard-setting and accrediting body in the health care in the United States, evaluates, and accredits about 20,000 hospitals and health care organizations nationwide. The JACHO’s mission is to see to it that quality care provided to the public is improve, through the provision of health care accreditation and related services supporting the performance improvement in health care organizations. The 2006 National Patient safety Goals aims to promote precise improvements in the patient safety, and to point out complicated areas in health care and illustrate consensus based on experts and on evidence, to solutions to these complicated areas. This goal is focus in general on system-wide solutions when ever and where ever possible. The 2006 Standard for Hospital Care Item 2E Item 2E of the 2006 standards for hospital care implement standardized means to â€Å"hand-off† communications, which include the chance to ask and respond to questions (The Joint Commission Perspective on Patient safety p. 3). The requirement 2E can be implemented in the ER through interactive communication, which would provide opportunity for question and answer between the giver of health care and the receiver. The 2E item can also be implemented through review of relevant patient historical information, which contains earlier care, management and services. However, it is important that health care organization defines and communicate a process in which information about patient care is communicated consistently. Meghan Pillow pointed out that when patient is handed off â€Å"care givers promote safe and effective treatment by passing along crucial information such as patient current condition, on going treatment, recent changes in condition, and possible changes or complications for which to be prepared† (Pillow 2007, p. 95). Reference List Improving Compliance with the 2006 National Patient Safety Goals Patient Safety Vol. 6 Issue 3March 2006 http://www.theschwartzcenter.org/news/news/Implementing.pdf Pillow, Meghan (2007) Improving Hand-off Communication. USA: Joint Commission Resources

Drug and Medication: Lexapro Essay -- Medication, Drug, Escitalpram

Medication/drug name The brand name is Lexapro, but is known generically as Escitalopram. Lexapro is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) (Escitalopram, 2011). Lexapro is used to treat: acute and maintenance treatment of Major Depressive Disorder and Acute Treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (Forest Pharmaceuticals, 2012). Lexapro can treat adults for both MDD and GAD. Lexapro is not FDA-indicted to treat adolescent with GAD, but is approved for adolescents (aged 12-17) with MDD. There are no street names for Lexapro, and stated by Forest Pharmaceuticals, animal studies suggest that abuse danger of this drug is low Type of Substance As previously stated, Lexapro is a Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are by far, the most frequently prescribed antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). SSRI’s work by increasing the levels of serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain (Mandal, n.d.). Serotonin regulates some aspects of the brain including mood, sleep and emotion (Mandal, n.d.). People with depression have low levels of serotonin so the SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, which means a greater amount of serotonin than usual remains available in the synaptic space between the two nerves (Mandal, n.d.). SSRIs relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety, are rather safe and generally cause less side effects than other types of antidepressants ("Selective serotonin reuptake," 2013). Lexapro tablets are film coated, round tablets containing esxitalopram oxalate in strengths equal to 5mg, 10mg, and 20 mg ("Lexapro," 2004). Lexapro is obtainable as tablets or an oral solution, the most frequent use is the tablet. The identification of Lexapro tab... ...r 18). Retrieved from http://www.rxlist.com/lexapro-drug.htm Lexapro. (2004). Formulary, 39(2), 79-80. Lexapro. (2004, April). Retrieved from http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/04/briefing/2004- 4065b1-22-tab11C-Lexapro-Tabs-SLR015.pdf. Lieberman, J. A. (2003). History of the use of antidepressants in primary care. Primary care companion, 5, 6-10. Retrieved from http://www.psychiatrist.com/pcc/pccpdf/v05s07/v05s0702.pdf Mandal, A. (n.d.). Ssris how they work. Retrieved from http://www.news- medical.net/health/SSRIs-How-They-Work.aspx Ramachandria, C. T., Subramanyan, N., Bar, K. J., Baker, G., & Yeragani, V. K. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136031/ Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (ssris). (2013, July 09). Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depression/in-depth/ssris/art-20044825

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education Essay

Benjamin Bloom developed Bloom’s Taxonomy in 1956. It identifies three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor; utilized to evaluate knowledge adapted by the learner. Each domain has categories that measure the level of the learners understanding. This paper gives a brief overview of each domain and explains how Bloom’s taxonomy applies to education and its use in nursing education. Blooms Taxonomy is a classification of learning objectives divided into three categories. The first category is cognitive. The skills in cognitive involve knowledge, comprehension, critical thinking, and mental skills. In nursing education this category is assessed with the patient in exhibiting memory of previously learned material. For example, evaluating the patient with diabetes with a question, such as what are the health benefits of eating a low sugar diet and daily exercise to control blood sugar. The second category is Affective. The skills in affective revolves around receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and internalizing the information given to them. In nursing education this category the learners should be expected to be attentive to and be aware of learning, they listen with respect and remember the new information. Learners may experience acceptance or become committed to new information, learners also organize their values with prioritization. The learner should actively participate in learning. For example, asking questions and participates in discussion. Another example in the affective domain; how the diabetic deals with the fact that they have a disease that will need to be closely monitored for the rest of their life. The nurse will need to assess the alertness of the diabetic. Is the diabetic ready to listen to information about the disease and how to manage it? The third category is psychomotor. The skills in psychomotor domain are imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation, and naturalization. In nursing  education in this category the learner is expected to use sensory clues to imitate motor activity, follow instructions and practice after receiving information, the learner should be able to work unsupervised. The learner becomes more exacting in the process; they are able to do something correctly. The learners’ skills are developed and can modify actions to fit changes. The learner has a high level of routine skills without thinking too much about it. For example, the learner is able to detect the proper site for finger stick blood sugar testing, is able to withdraw an accurate dose of insulin with a syringe from a multi-dose vial, and is able to adjust glucose dosage to restore safe blood sugar level. In conclusion, many students are not taught to use critical thinking in contrast Blooms Taxonomy helps students including registered nurses to use higher level of thinking to improve learning. As registered nurses, we are life-long educators to our patients; in order to have success in our teaching we must utilize Blooms Taxonomy to assess our patient knowledge on what they are being taught. Reference Bloom’s Taxonomy of learning domains. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com

Career Research Paper

This Job Involves many skills. Since physical therapists are always working with people they must enjoy working with all different kinds of people. Touching others is also a large part of this job. They not only have to help a patient get better and help prevent injury. A therapist must have a good understanding of the human body and be able to show patients various exercises.There have been various types of therapy: heat and cold, hydrotherapy, electrotherapist, and massage and exercise according to Churchman. Heat and cold involves heating and cooling the Injury with various tools. Hydrotherapy Includes using hot water to help with various injuries. Electrotherapist Involves using electric shocks to relax the muscles. Massage and Exercise involves using acupressure and electrical stimulation. Today physical therapists make their own history through research. Rather than following everyone else they research to find what works best for them and their patients.The general duties of a physical therapist, according to Churchman, Include transporting patients, make-up of treatment tables, cleaning arioso machines, clerical work, talk with patients to become familiar with them and their injuries. They tend to work 40 hours a week and often-on Saturdays according to â€Å"Physical Therapists†. This article also states therapists tent to work one on one with patients and rarely work in groups since each injury is different they cannot be grouped together.The income off physical therapist ranges from $50,000 to $104,000 according to â€Å"Physical Therapists† and assistants tend to earn an average of $32,000 as stated in Churchman. The education needed for this Job once involved eating a physical education degree but has changed since them. However in 2001 all programs for physical therapy will be at the matters degree level and above. Students will need their undergraduate grades and volunteer experience in physical therapy. The undergraduate classes sh ould have a balanced combination of course that will teach you how to live and how to earn a living.Understand the development of humanity spiritual and social needs as well as physical needs. Therapists must think logically and be able to write and speak effectively. They must learn to have strong relationships with their patients. Tarring In high school they should start taking courses that will help them learn all of these skills. A few classes include biology, English, physics, first aid, and health. In college or university there are many programs to help physical therapists get the requirements they need.Physical Therapist Assistants require a two-year associate degree that gives students theoretical and practical knowledge. Physical therapists mostly work In the field with baccalaureate degrees but most students today earn a master's. Henderson also mentions that all students need some clinical experience while they are studying to et their various degrees. A few ways to get started it taking positions in large teaching hospitals in metropolitan areas to gain experience. The armed forces or the U. S. Public Health Service are also a good place to start.Hospitals or local practices are also available in most areas. Many new graduates tend to go to hospitals first. This Job really Interests me because I enjoy working with people and I always want to freshmen at San Marco's and was studying to become a Sports Medicine Trainer. I have always looked up to her and we have always had similar interests. I looked into Sports Medicine and found it quite interesting but I knew I would not be able to handle that much pressure. Later in my freshman year, my knees started to bother me while I was dancing so I went to an orthopedic surgeon to get a diagnosis.I noticed the physical therapist's office across the lobby but did not know anything about them. When I got home I began to research physical therapy and found it really interesting. I took anatomy and physiology in high school and fell in love with learning how the body moves. I am now in my third year at community college and I till have one more year before I plan on transferring to San Marco's Sinology program. From there I plan to get my master's, possibly Loam Linda, and my PhD from SST. Augustine in San Marco's or Loam Linda.San Marco's will help set up an internship at the new hospital in Tentacle and I am hoping to get a Job there while I finish up my education. Eventually I plan to open my own private practice, possibly specialize in a sport and work with athletes or work with the armed forces. Looking more into working for the armed forces, I could either enlist as an officer or work as a civilian. Enlisting as an officer would involve going through basic combat training, advanced individual training, and officer schooling.If I were to work as a civilian according to Henderson, many civilians hold two Jobs. Rather than only working for the military they tend to work at other pract ices or hospitals in the area. I feel I would also have to be very positive to help all the military men and women stay positive and keep working hard. Another issue with enlisting would be getting certified in each state. According to Henderson a therapist must be certified in the state before they are able to start practicing.

MLK, Jr. essays

MLK, Jr. essays Martin Luther King, Jr. was born in Atlanta, Georgia on January 15, 1929. He faced racism at an early age. When he started school Martin attended a colored school. From then on, he was not allowed to play with his best friends who were white. His mother hugged him and said, You are as good as anyone. He decided from then on he wanted things to be different. Martin never stopped thinking about how he could make the world a better place. He thought about being a doctor and helping people when they were sick, or a lawyer so he could help people when they were in trouble with the law. He finally decided to become a preacher like his father. Martin studied very hard in school. He loved books and hoped he could use powerful words to teach people to respect others. Martin studied so much so that he started college when he was only fifteen. Martin started college in 1944 at Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia where he majored in sociology. He skipped a year in college and graduated in 1948. King then entered Crozer Theological seminary. There Martin learned about Mohandas Gandhi, a man who showed the people of India peaceful ways to change the unjust laws of their government. Gandhi did not use violence. He began to think about ways to use his own preaching to teach others some of Gandhi's ideas. He graduated from Crozer in 1951, and entered Boston University as a doctorial student. It was there he earned the title, Doctor King. While living in Boston, he met his wife Corretta Scott. They were married on June 18, 1953. After receiving his doctorate at Boston University in 1955, he and Coretta moved to Montgomery, Alabama and became the pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. On December 1, 1955, a woman named Rosa Parks was arrested for being a Negro who refused to give up her seat to a white man. Many people in Montgomery felt that Mrs. Parks had not been treat ...

The challenges in the 21st century and where the trade unions Essay

The challenges in the 21st century and where the trade unions currently lie - Essay Example The essay has various elements including the way unions work and the purpose of the initial unions to the purpose of these unions today along with the external influences such as privatization and globalization which have had a huge impact on the unions. Trade unions and how they operate Trade unions or labor unions are labor organizations which aim for the betterment of the labor force. Various employees join the trade union and are known as its members. Basically, the union focuses on achieving the common aims and goals by the employees such as higher wages and better working conditions. Solely, a worker or an employee has almost no control over the employer and therefore, he/she has a very less control in the work that he/she is doing. For example, if an employee asks the employer to increase the wage, the employer is likely to reject this demand put forward by the employee. However, a trade union has a greater say and a greater power against the employer as there are several members attached to the organization. The aim of this essay is to point out the key reasons for the fall in the importance of labor unions. Also, the reasons for a constant trade union membership decline are discussed. There are several problems which the unions face in the 21st century which are due to globalization and these changes and the reactions needed by the unions are disxussed. A trade union leader has the power to negotiate with the employer. However, the decision will not be totally in the favor of the union but the laborers will be better off through bargaining. Usually, the issues put forward by the union leadership include higher wagers, better working conditions, fringe benefits, safety at work, promotion policies and policies for firing the employees. The trade unions received a lot of popularity in the 18th century after originating from Europe as a hope for the employees. It started developing after the industrial revolution. The initial was to make the laborers better off but this quickly changed as trade unions started developing for professional employees and for skilled employees. The unions usually call for a strike when their demands are not met by the employers. "Trade Unions Towards the 21st Century ; European Trade Union Institute." Transfer : European Review of Labour and Research. 3.3 (1997): 464-605. Print. Trade unions were initially required for the low skilled workers, however, the basic focus changed and it became a community for the people who are working in a similar company or in a similar field. While representing the different types of employees, the unions grew in numbers and the movement started in several different countries. The old rules applied to the older trade unions and the 21st century changed the entire foundation for the unions. Even though there are several unions still available for professional skilled employees and for unskilled laborers, the old policies don’t apply the new era. The industrialization age has been long gone and today, a different set of rules apply for both, the employers and for the employees.. The challenges in the 21st century and where the trade unions currently lie The main thing that needs to be understood is that there in the current era, businesses and employers no longer come under the same old strategies by the unions. They need to lower their costs and they will do so by keeping a low wage for the employees. The unions, today, have a relatively less power in negotiating against the employers. As the number of members decreases, the unions’ power to bargain falls with it. They no longer have the potential to face the employees for the interest of the

Maritime Logistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Maritime Logistics - Essay Example The second chapter deals exclusively on the group’s supply chain by analysing the process and practices with key supply chain issues that affect the top and bottom line of the company. It also discusses about the drivers that maintain the group’s competitiveness in three key dimensions such as – quality, cost and time. The subsequent chapter explains about the realm of maritime logistics delving deep into how the maritime process can be seamlessly integrated into the logistic and supply chain system of a business. At the end it discusses how the group can leverage on maritime logistics and minimise certain endemic supply-chain issues such as the bullwhip effect. The ArcelorMittal, the world’s number one steel company with over 32000 employeesi and presence in over 60 countries and is a truly global steel maker. It is a market leader in all the global steel markets such as automotive, construction, household appliances and packaging. The group holds sizable captive supplies of raw materials and operates a huge distribution network throughout the globeii. With revenue of $124.9 billion and crude steel production of 103.3 million tonnes, it represents almost 10 percent of the global steel outputiii. ArcelorMittal’s chief operations include providing ‘steel solutions and services’. The group operates in more than 500 centres and 32 countries, providing to approximately 200,000 customers a full portfolio of flat and long products, tubes and stainless steel; adding value through further processing and providing technical, engineering and consultancy supportiv. A detailed list of products is placed at the appendix to this reportv. The group through its integrated business model operates in the entire hierarchy of the business from mining and sourcing of raw materials to managing a mammoth mobilisation network that transports the raw materials to the factory location, followed by designing and manufacturing